The Benefits of Cooperative Learning for ELL Students

The Benefits of Cooperative Learning for ELL Students The first thing to consider is the fact that cooperative learning is beneficial to all students, regardless of their classification or primary language. In fact, activities where the teacher uses conceptual strategies that promote learning together or group investigation are statistically proven to be superior to instructional design focused on working alone or working in a competitive environment. Essentially, helping each other is better than competing or working alone. Three highly effective conceptual models have been determined to be those cooperative activities which can be labeled as learning together, academic controversy, or group investigation. Basically, if the cooperative learning technique you are using involves one of these three modes, then your lesson should be more effective than students working alone or in a competitive style (Johnson, D., Johnson R., Stanne, 2000). There are many examples of instructional strategies with a learning together style. Numbered Heads Together is one such activity; it is a strategy that promotes discussion, individual accountability, as well as group accountability. It is especially effective for reviewing and integrating subject matter (Numbered Heads Together, 2010). Academic controversy, another effective style of cooperative learning mentioned in the previous paragraph, is essentially informed and educated debate, with one important twist: the students argue both sides of the issue or contentious theory. One example of this type of cooperative learning strategy involves six steps: create the best case for a position on the controversy, present this best case, engage in open discussion, reverse perspectives, synthesize and come to consensus, and prepare a report (Academic Controversy, 2010). The last highly-effective type of cooperative learning noted above in the research is called group investigation. One school district website describes group investigation as an activity where à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦students collaborate to produce a group product for presentation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [in] an open-ended investigationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦structured to promote higher-order thinking skills. (Regina Public Schools, 2003). This type of group activity is probably best known as the very popular WebQuest design where students surf the internet in a guided, but self-directed, group investigation into a topic which ultimately leads to a finalized presentation or product. (Dodge, 2007). There are many more types of cooperative learning possibilities and conceptual categories to consider than learning together, academic controversy, and group investigation, however the conceptual types mentioned above are noted to be especially easy to learn, easy to implement, and easy to maintain once put into use (Johnson et al., 2000). Not only are cooperative learning strategies effective for all learners, but they are especially effective for ELL students specifically. Language learners tend to pick up social language much faster than academic language. ELL students basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) are practiced in a meaningful context in a variety of social settings, but CALP is not normally practiced outside of the classroom. Rather, CALP is the language used in subject area content material; CALP is essential for success in school. While BICS will develop in as little as six months, CALP may take as long as seven years (Haynes, 1998). So we can see that the faster CALP is developed, the sooner our ELL students will succeed in content curricular areas. One way that cooperative learning helps CALP to be developed is through comprehensible input and comprehensible output. ELL students will often fail to understand a lecture, but if they are assisted by classmates it can be made more comprehensible to them. Comprehensive output means that the student has the opportunity to practice at whatever level of English fluency they have attained. CL helps to develop comprehensible input and comprehensible output in several ways. First, small groups make it possible for the teacher or group members to adapt the message to the ELL student. Second, feedback, correction, and checking of comprehension are easier in small groups and are non-judgmental. Also, ELL students have the opportunity to practice their oral language skills, get repetition, and peer assistance related to the current task at hand (Haynes, 1998). Another way that cooperative learning is helpful to ELL students is by lowering their anxiety level so that they feel more at ease and are able to comfortably focus on learning the language. Wang Qiangs work on cooperative learning (Qiang, 2007, as cited in Yang, 2008) shows us that speaking in small groups is natural, because in real life, this is how spontaneous communication occurs. If they speak in front of a large group of people it is usually a more formal situation where they have a prepared speech (Yang, 2009). Furthermore, according to Krashens Affective Filter hypothesis, anxiety is a negative factor in second language acquisition whereby the ELL student will retain less language under stress than in a relaxed state (Schutz, 2007). Since cooperative learning lowers the affective filter (Willis, 2007), it is logical that cooperative learning would make second language learning less threatening and therefore more effective. Consider this powerful quote about neuroimaging of t he anxious brain: In MRI scans of adolescents in states of affective, emotional anxiety, when the amygdala is metabolically hyperactive, the pathways that normally conduct information in and out of the amygdala show greatly reduced activity. Thus, new information is blocked from entering the memory banks (Toga Thompson, 2003, as stated in Willis, 2007). Two early studies done by Pica and Doughty in 1984 and 1985 (as stated in Liang, Mohan, and Early, 1998) compared the efficacy of teacher-fronted classes to small-group interactive classes. They found that in small groups students were able to practice more, receive more feedback, and produce more examples of the target language. This suggests that in small groups the ELL students have more opportunity to work on those specific curricular words, or academic language, that TESL instructors strive to develop. Pica and Doughtys study also found that in group work over 65% of students were engaged in negotiation for meaning versus 45% of the students in teacher-fronted classes. This statistic seems to suggest that ELL students will talk more freely and frequently in group settings about what unfamiliar language terms and structures mean. Thus, CALP is likely developed faster in CL groups than in teacher-fronted classes (Liang et al, 1998). Two interesting handbooks may help teachers improve their ability to foster CALP in the ELL classroom. One is the very popular Calla Handbook and the other is titled Building Academic Language, by Jeff Zweirs. The CALLA handbook: Implementing the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach, was written by Anna Uhl Chamot, and was presented in workshop format, by the author, in Wyoming in February of 2007. In her presentation on her popular book, Dr. Chamot stresses several key aspects of the CALLA approach. CALLA instruction is based on educational research and focuses on those language skills needed in school for academic success. Students are encouraged to value their prior knowledge and to relate it to new academic learning, a new culture, and a new language. Students are also tasked with learning to work cooperatively and socially, as well as internalizing learning strategies and applying them to new situations. Teachers are advised to use interesting topics and content which is linked to prior experiences and knowledge as well as presenting content through hands-on, investigative, or cooperative activities (Chamot Robbins, 2007). A book review of Building Academic Language: Essential Practices for Content Classrooms illuminates its value for building CALP in ELL education. This handbook is described as being very practical, full of strategies for the classroom, and focused on academic literacy. Important concepts in the book include using in-depth conversation as a scaffolding technique for building academic language, using metacognition to help students analyze classroom interactions, as well as the use of visual aids to help develop academic thought processes. The book stresses the need to think about the quality of student discourse, as well as the quantity, whereby the style of academic verbal interactions is guided by teaching processes, is modeled by the teacher, and ultimately leads to a deeper academic vocabulary and a deeper comprehension. (Huerta-Macias, 2007). In conclusion, this paper has reviewed and discussed how certain styles of cooperative learning are particularly valuable for all learners, including ELL students. Cooperative learning research and scholarly writings have been reviewed which demonstrate further that CL facilitates second language acquisition, in particular, because it lowers anxiety, makes input and output more comprehensible, and leads to more frequent use of the target language being studied. Finally, two respected TESL handbooks were reviewed for their merits in helping ELL teachers develop CALP.

Festivals are the best way to learn about your faith Essay

â€Å"Festivals are the best way to learn about your faith.† Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer and show that you have thought about different points of view. Refer to Judaism in you answer. (15 marks) According to Jews, each individual has a strong duty to uphold their covenant with God. In fact, this is possibly the most important thing a Jew does during his/her lifetime: love and honour God’s commands and wishes. It is essential that all Jews, adults and children, understand what this means. Festivals are used to rejoice but they also have a strong message that will help Jews to follow the Torah and to love God. They help Jews to learn about their faith. E.g. Passover teaches the Jews about their history and about God’s ability to change history. Shabbat remembers the Sabbath day when God rested from creating the world. And so, Jews must rest too on this day and do no work whatsoever. Jews reflect upon God as the creator of all things. Simchat Torah commemorates the acceptance of the Torah and God’s counselling on how His chosen people should live Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur both call upon Jews to reflect upon their actions to God and towards each other. They are times of forgiving. Another way that festivals are very important is because of the children of Jews. They are the Jewish future and without them, the faith would die. Jews rely on the traditions and symbolism to pass down through generations. Festivals are particularly effective in teaching children because not only are they generally fun, they present to children a time to see distant relatives, a time to relax, a time to forgive each other and to be happy. Festivals are a exceptionally good way for children to learn about their faith but there are many ways a Jew can learn about his faith and although festivals may be the most fun, there are other essential things a Jew must learn about to learn about his/her faith. Some Jews may argue that before they are even of an age to learn, they must be initiated into their faith by a row of festivals such as Brit Milah (circumcision), Simchat Habat (The naming ceremony for girls), Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah. These festivals mark huge event: the admission into Judaism and the responsibility for keeping the covenant and the commandments for themselves. Children learn about all this through extensive research and reading of the Torah and the Hebrew language. Another way of learning about the religion is the reading of the Torah. Both the learning of the Written Torah and the Oral Torah is fundamental. Preferably, they will learn it in its original language, Hebrew, but nowadays, children will often learn the English version or in the language of whatever country they live. Synagogues provide study classes for communities of children and adults. The Written Torah contains the six hundred and thirteen mitzvoth that Jews must strive to keep for all of their life. The Oral torah provides a interpretation of these rules and how to keep them. Many Jews will also look to the local Rabbi to learn about their faith. He will advise them on any problems they have and willingly explain anything a Jew is confused about. They are they as guidance and help for Jews and are a very good way of enlightenment about Judaism. I am inclined to agree with the statement, because the event becomes a lot more interesting and fun as it is a break from the norm and it can be easy to remember certain events by having simple symbols to remind you. For example in Passover a Seder meal is eaten which contains several symbols to describe the event, which occurred 3,300 years ago. The Z’roah is a roasted bone of lamb to symbolise painting the door posts with lamb’s blood so the Angel of Death passed over that house and spared the first-born son and the matzah symbolises the Israelites leaving in a hurry, before their bread has risen. These symbols in the festival enable Jews to understand and remember the story by relating the food they’re eating. So, when they see the Z’roah they will think, â€Å"Oh, yes, I remember that lamb’s blood was painting over door posts so the Angel did not kill the first-born son of that house!† This is because they can relate it to the Z’roah being a roasted bone of lamb, so it jogs their memory. This is a good way to teach younger children about the story as they relate better to symbols and interesting stories than about lectures and rules that they MUST obey. I find that I can learn something much easier if I enjoy what I am learning and festivals are a really fun way of learning about one’s faith. However I can understand the point of view of those Jews who believe that the Written and Oral Torah are essential for the awareness of Judaism. I do believe that it is very important that Jews learn about the commandments and how they should be kept, because it is that which keeps the faith alive. I think, to sum it up, that festivals are a very good way to learn about one’s faith, because children can relate to them better and children are, of course, the future of Judaism, but I think if a Jew has learnt about their faith through all of these aspects then you cannot ask for a more devoted and steadfast person.

Siege of Boston in the American Revolution

The Siege of Boston occurred during the American Revolution and began April 19, 1775 and lasted until March 17, 1776. Commencing after the opening battles at  Lexington Concord,  the Siege of Boston saw the growing American army block the land approaches to Boston. During the course of the siege, the two sides clashed at the bloody Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775. The stalemate around the city also saw the arrival of two commanders who would play a central role in the conflict over the next three years:  General George Washington  and  Major General William Howe. As the fall and winter progressed, neither side proved able to gain an advantage. This changed in early 1776 when artillery captured at Fort Ticonderoga arrived in the American lines. Mounted on Dorchester Heights, the guns compelled Howe to abandon the city. Background In the wake of the Battles of Lexington Concord on April 19, 1775, American colonial forces continued to attack British troops as they attempted to withdraw back to Boston. Though aided by reinforcements led by Brigadier General Hugh Percy, the column continued to take casualties with particularly intense fighting occurring around Menotomy and Cambridge.  Finally reaching the safety of Charlestown late in the afternoon, the British were able to gain a respite. While the British consolidated their position and recovered from the days fighting, militia units from across New England began arriving on the outskirts of Boston. Armies Commanders Americans General George WashingtonMajor General Artemas Wardup to 16,000 men British Lieutenant General Thomas GageMajor General William Howeup to 11,000 men Under Siege By morning, around 15,000 American militiamen were in place outside of the city. Initially guided by Brigadier General William Heath of the Massachusetts militia, he passed command to General Artemas Ward late on the 20th. As the American army was effectively a collection of militias, Wards control was nominal, but he succeeded in establishing a loose siege line running from Chelsea around the city to Roxbury. Emphasis was placed on blocking Boston and Charlestown Necks. Across the lines, the British commander, Lieutenant General Thomas Gage, elected not impose martial law and instead worked with the citys leaders to have private weapons surrendered in exchange for allowing those residents who desired to leave Boston to depart. The Noose Tightens Over the next several days, Wards forces were augmented by new arrivals from Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. With these troops came permission from the provisional governments of New Hampshire and Connecticut for Ward to assume command over their men. In Boston, Gage was surprised by the size and perseverance of the American forces and stated, In all their wars against the French they never showed such conduct, attention, and perseverance as they do now. In response, he began fortifying parts of the city against attack. Consolidating his forces in the city proper, Gage withdrew his men from Charlestown and erected defenses across Boston Neck. Traffic in and out of the city was briefly restricted before both sides came to an informal agreement allowing civilians to pass as long as they were unarmed. Though deprived of access to the surrounding countryside, the harbor remained open and ships of the Royal Navy, under Vice Admiral Samuel Graves, were able to supply the city. Though Graves efforts were effective, attacks by American privateers led prices for food and other necessities to rise dramatically. Lacking artillery to break the stalemate, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress dispatched Colonel Benedict Arnold to seize the guns at Fort Ticonderoga. Joining with Colonel Ethan Allens Green Mountain Boys, Arnold captured the fort on May 10. Later that month and into early June, American and British forces skirmished as Gages men attempted to capture hay and livestock from the outer islands of Boston Harbor (Map). Battle of Bunker Hill On May 25, HMS Cerberus arrived at Boston carrying Major Generals William Howe, Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne. As the garrison had been reinforced to around 6,000 men, the new arrivals advocated for breaking out of the city and seizing Bunker Hill, above Charlestown, and Dorchester Heights south of the city. The British commanders intended to implement their plan on June 18. Learning of the British plans on June 15, the Americans quickly moved to occupy both locations. To the north, Colonel William Prescott and 1,200 men marched onto the Charlestown Peninsula on the evening of June 16.  After some debate among his subordinates, Prescott directed that a redoubt be constructed on Breeds Hill rather than Bunker Hill as originally intended. Work commenced and continued through the night with Prescott also ordering a breastwork to be built extending down the hill to the northeast. Spotting the Americans works the next morning, British warships opened fire with little effect. In Boston, Gage met with his commanders to discuss options. After taking six hours to organize an assault force, Howe led British forces over to Charlestown and attacked on the afternoon of June 17. Repelling two large British assaults, Prescotts men stood firm and were only forced to retreat when they ran out of ammunition. In the fighting, Howes troops suffered over 1,000 casualties while the Americans sustained around 450. The high cost of victory at the Battle of Bunker Hill would influence British command decisions for the remainder of the campaign. Having taken the heights, the British began work to fortify Charlestown Neck to prevent another American incursion. Building an Army While events were unfolding in Boston, the Continental Congress in Philadelphia created the Continental Army on June 14 and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief the following day. Riding north to take command, Washington arrived outside Boston on July 3. Establishing his headquarters in Cambridge, he began molding the masses of colonial troops into an army. Creating badges of rank and uniform codes, Washington also began creating a logistical network to support his men. In an attempt to bring structure to the army, he divided it into three wings each led by a major general. The left wing, led by Major General Charles Lee was tasked with guarding the exits from Charlestown, while Major General Israel Putnams center wing was established near Cambridge. The right wing at Roxbury, led by Major General Artemas Ward, was the largest and was to cover Boston Neck as well as Dorchester Heights to the east. Through the summer, Washington worked to expand and reinforce the American lines. He was supported by the arrival of riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. Possessing accurate, long range weapons, these sharpshooters were employed in harassing the British lines. Next Steps On the night of August 30, British forces launched a raid against Roxbury, while American troops successfully destroyed the lighthouse on Lighthouse Island. Learning in September that the British did not intend to attack until reinforced, Washington dispatched 1,100 men under Arnold to conduct an invasion of Canada. He also began planning for an amphibious assault against the city as he feared his army would break up with the arrival of winter. After discussions with his senior commanders, Washington agreed to postpone the attack. As the stalemate pressed on, the British continued local raiding for food and stores. In November, Washington was presented a plan by Henry Knox for transporting Ticonderogas guns to Boston. Impressed, he appointed Knox a colonel and sent him to the fort. On November 29, an armed American ship succeeded in capturing the British brigantine Nancy outside of Boston Harbor. Loaded with munitions, it provided Washington with much needed gunpowder and arms. In Boston, the situation for the British changed in October when Gage was relieved in favor of Howe. Though reinforced to around 11,000 men, he was chronically short on supplies. The Siege Ends As winter set in, Washingtons fears began to come true as his army was reduced to around 9,000 through desertions and expiring enlistments. His situation improved on January 26, 1776 when Knox arrived in Cambridge with 59 guns from Ticonderoga. Approaching his commanders in February, Washington proposed an attack on the city by moving over the frozen Back Bay, but was instead convinced to wait. Instead, he formulated a plan to drive the British from the city by emplacing guns on Dorchester Heights. Assigning several of Knoxs guns to Cambridge and Roxbury, Washington began a diversionary bombardment of the British lines on the night of March 2. On the night of March 4/5, American troops moved guns to Dorchester Heights from which they could strike the city and the British ships in the harbor. Seeing the American fortifications on the heights in the morning, Howe initially made plans for assaulting the position. This was prevented by a snowstorm late in the day. Unable to attack, Howe reconsidered his plan and elected to withdraw rather than have a repeat of Bunker Hill. The British Depart On March 8, Washington received word that the British intended to evacuate and would not burn the city if allowed to leave unmolested. Though he did not formally respond, Washington agreed to the terms and British began embarking along with numerous Boston Loyalists. On March 17, the British departed for Halifax, Nova Scotia and American forces entered the city. Having been taken after an eleven-month siege, Boston remained in American hands for the remainder of the war.

Video Games Effect On Human Development - 1783 Words

In the modern era, a huge topic of controversy is video games, specifically how much and how long people should play them, if at all. People have associated increased violence and other problems with violent media. Science on the other hand, states that games can have a greater positive impact on human development. Both sides present plenty of evidence to support their claims, but are video games detrimental to people? Despite the negative view of video games that people possess, the games do have beneficial effects on people’s learning, critical thinking, social and real world skills. Video games have made a huge impact on pop culture and the military has made good use of them as well. Using their popularity, the United States Army has†¦show more content†¦Some players who play these types of games have been proven to have better surgery skills than actual surgeons. Meanwhile, video games have also been known to teach people business skills like division of labor, su pply and demand, distribution of profits, and conservation of resources. One can easily apply these skills to real life scenarios whether they are a CEO of a multi-billion dollar company or using division of labor when clearing out their garage with the help of their friends. Video games have incredible benefits not just in teaching people life skills but also learning in general. In his book, Marc Prensky suggests that, â€Å"what digital technology has offered us- and what game designers have adopted and perfected- is a way to understand and adapt to each learner in ways even a human teacher never can† (Prensky 90). Prensky explains his argument by connecting it to what a parent treasures most; their child’s education, in order to convey that video games can be more effective at teaching than teachers. It is a well-known fact that students learn at different paces and sometimes have trouble learning in school because it is either too easy or too hard. Video games present the ability to learn from the student and adjust the difficulty to fit that student’s learning pace. In the same way that they make a good recruitment tool for the military, video games disguise the parts of learning that